No one would minimize the real and potential benefits to be derived from genetic engineering. Yet, in our endorsement of this technology, we must also at least consider its possible adverse impact. Some alarmists feel that tampering with the genes of humans and other organisms is tantamount to playing God, and they predict dire sociological, ecological, and medical consequences. Jeremy Rifkin of the Foundation on Economic Trends voiced his group’s fear:
We are embarking on a very potentially troublesome journey, where we begin to reduce all other animals on this planet to genetically engineered products. . . . We will increasingly think of ourselves as just gene codes and blueprints and programs that can be tinkered with.
Other critics argue that creating entirely new organisms and releasing them into the earth’s habitats may upset the balance of nature. They point out that the same techniques that are used to engineer plants to resist herbicides and bacteria to make insulin could also create a virus that inserts into the human genome and causes cancer or other diseases.
The Problem with GMOs
One of the most publicized issues has been the use of genetically modified organisms in food crops. A serious controversy has erupted over transgenic corn and soybeans. The corn is engineered to contain an insecticide gene from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The soybeans contain genes for herbicide resistance. Over 50% of the soybeans and 20% of the corn planted worldwide are genetically modified. Although they are not intended for use in human food, in several instances, they have wound up in processed products, leading to concerns about safety. In Europe and America, protesters have marched to demand the end to “frankenfoods.” One possible problem is that these foods may give rise to allergies or other sensitivities. Ecologists fear that the insecticide gene will be spread to other plants and destroy the “good” insects. It has already been found lethal to monarch butterflies. In the end, the advantages of these new plants must be weighed against their adverse impact.
Brave New World?
Other consequences of this technology are far reaching. For instance, is the world heading toward a time when normal children will be given genetically engineered growth hormone to increase size? A controlled study was conducted to assess the effects of recombinant growth hormone on the development of children who are healthy but somewhat small for their age. Data from these trials indicate that hormone therapy does increase height if given early, but the increases are not dramatic. The perception of small size as a “disease” that needs to be treated is very distressing to some medical experts, and the treatment is currently limited to treating children who are deficient in this hormone. Yet supporters feel that the use of engineered hormones is really no different from cosmetic surgery and should be available to people who want it.
Detailed analysis of the genetic blueprint of human beings will not only provide a greater understanding of what causes genetic diseases, but it will also allow screening for any defective genes that could lead to disease. Such a possibility will also give rise to numerous ethical and legal questions. Opponents have already objected vehemently to genetic screening as an invasion of privacy, not unlike requiring genetic “social security numbers.” Might such tests be demanded as a means of determining one’s fitness for a job or insurance coverage? The federal government has announced its opposition to this use of screening, but has yet to offer legislation to control it.
It is far more likely that the ability to profile an individual’s genetic makeup will have beneficial effects. Children with serious or life- threatening defects may require prompt therapy to correct or alleviate the effects of the disease. In pinpointing the risk for cancer and other serious diseases, screening will help people make meaningful life style and medical decisions. In addition, genetic counseling would be greatly improved since parents with a complete genetic profile could determine in advance what potentially harmful genes their children might inherit. Tests are now available to determine the sex of an eight-cell-stage embryo and whether it carries certain genetic diseases. Will these techniques be used to promote sex selection, or will they influence decisions to terminate pregnancy on the basis of genetic defects? Although it has not yet been attempted in humans, gene line therapy (correcting genetic defects in the zygote or early embryo) will be a distinct possibility in the future.
The most vocal critics imagine a day when parents will be able to create super babies by requesting that certain favorable genes be added to their children’s genomes. Others, however, feel that gene line therapy would be the ultimate solution to correcting genetic defects that diminish the quality of life.
It is far more likely that the ability to profile an individual’s genetic makeup will have beneficial effects. Children with serious or life- threatening defects may require prompt therapy to correct or alleviate the effects of the disease. In pinpointing the risk for cancer and other serious diseases, screening will help people make meaningful life style and medical decisions. In addition, genetic counseling would be greatly improved since parents with a complete genetic profile could determine in advance what potentially harmful genes their children might inherit. Tests are now available to determine the sex of an eight-cell-stage embryo and whether it carries certain genetic diseases. Will these techniques be used to promote sex selection, or will they influence decisions to terminate pregnancy on the basis of genetic defects? Although it has not yet been attempted in humans, gene line therapy (correcting genetic defects in the zygote or early embryo) will be a distinct possibility in the future.
The most vocal critics imagine a day when parents will be able to create super babies by requesting that certain favorable genes be added to their children’s genomes. Others, however, feel that gene line therapy would be the ultimate solution to correcting genetic defects that diminish the quality of life.
The Bottom Line
An inevitable outcome of bioengineering has been its potential for profit. By 2001, over a hundred bioengineered products are expected to earn as much as $30 billion in revenues. With thousands of biotechnology companies worldwide, each actively developing various drugs, research tools, or industrial applications, this industry will continue to expand. Research and development on new drugs and treatments often involves billion dollar monetary investments. At the present time, pharmaceutical companies are testing and requesting approval for over 400 new biotech medicines. Most of these are for treating cancer, AIDS, vaccines, and gene therapy. Most biotechnology companies would like to have rights to exclusive marketing of the drugs, procedures, animals, plants, and microbes they have developed. Several hundred patents have been issued for unique and commercially useful organisms and drugs, and over 10,000 have been applied for. Currently, one of the most provocative questions is: Who owns the human genome? Several companies have patented human databases for genes that influence breast cancer, colon cancer, and obesity. Because the DNA was isolated and characterized, it existed in a form different from nature. Such patents have been used to develop test kits to detect defective genes and to assess risk, but later they may be used to develop therapies.
Protecting the public’s best interest will require that bioethicists and representatives of many disciplines— science, law, medicine, business, government, and education —continue to discuss the basic moral and economic issues and to develop guidelines for the future. The main problem may well be whether laws can keep up with the rapid advances in the field. There is no doubt that bioengineering will eventually touch all of our lives and even change the ways we regard the world.
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